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There is great diversity in religious belief and practice among Hindus. Rooted in the original Hindu texts above, these have emerged and changed over time and geographic location. They have been shaped and formed by a variety of Hindu sages and scholars, resulting in a vast array of spiritual material (and different philosophical schools). The present goal is to identify and describe the basic Hindu beliefs common to a majority of these diverse traditions. According to the Encyclopaedia Britannica, there are five elements that form the bedrock of the Hindu religion (Narayanan, 2016). These elements are doctrine, practice, society, story, and devotion.
Doctrine
Hindu beliefs revolve around three major concepts: dharma (world-preserving action, based on moral and religious laws); moksha (non-attachment, release and withdrawal from the materialistic world, which is flawed); and karma (the effect of one’s actions on present and future reincarnated lives).
As noted in Chapter 1, dharma (world-preserving action) and moksha (withdrawal from the world) are in constant tension, which the Bhagavad Gita seeks to balance. The Gita stresses five principles, which have their origins in the Vedas and Upanishads:
(1) SaguNa Brahman. This refers to the personal characteristics of the Universal Essence or Supreme God (also sometimes referred to as Paratman). These personal features stand in contrast to the impersonal or transcendent characteristics of God (NriguNa Brahman). Recall that Lord Krishna (the incarnation of the Supreme God) appears in the Gita as a person.
(2) Jiva. This is the “true Self” of the individual human (atman) and is distinguished from the false self or ego. The atman is part of the Paratman just like water molecules in an ocean wave are part of the ocean.
(3) Prakriti. This refers to material nature, which is temporary and under the control of the Supreme God (and part of the Supreme God). The material nature consists of three modes or “Gunas”: (1) goodness, light, or harmony; (2) energy, activity or passion; and (3) inertia, darkness or ignorance.
(4) Kala (time). All persons and things are under the influence of eternal time, where material existence is created, maintained, and then destroyed at regular intervals in an endless cycle. Lord Krishna says “I am time run on, destroyer of the universe, risen here to annihilate worlds” (11:32).
(5) Karma (activity). All actions in this world cause re-actions. Humans have free will, and their destiny is in their own hands (as in the Christian tradition, “as you sow, so shall you reap”).
With regard to karma, Hindus believe that the present life is not the end. When leaving this life at death, one is reincarnated and begins the next life. Those living a good life will be reborn into a good family (or higher caste, see below). Those not living a good life will be reborn into a lower caste with a more difficult life.
The doctrine of re-birth cannot be found in the earliest Vedas, and it is not clear where this belief emerged from (Williams et al, 2012, p 8). However, with the belief in rebirth (reincarnation) came the reality of re-death, which Vedic thinkers struggled with, since the prospect of dying over and over again for eternity was disturbing. Thus came the belief that this endless series of rebirths (samsara) and re-deaths would continue until the person realised the connection between their true self (atman) and the rest of reality and thereby merge with Paratman (God) and become free from the cycle of rebirth after death (moksha).
Lord Krishna in the Gita described three ways to accumulate good karma and avoid bad karma that perpetuated samsara, and therefore ensure a good rebirth and ultimately achieve moksha:
(1) way of knowledge (realising that life and death are not real but an illusion, which is a view based on the Vedas and Upanishads)
(2) way of action or dharma (to act in good, heroic, or brave ways without concern for the outcome)
(3) way of devotion (surrendering the will to Lord Krishna, who will himself take on the bad karma)
These three ways to accumulate good karma have helped to form the different castes in India, although are not limited to any one particular caste. The way of knowledge was originally meant for the highest brahmin case (teachers, priests, those who organised and studied the vedas). The way of action was intended for the middle warrior caste, emphasising that emotions such as fear or anxiety interfered with the outcomes being sought (such as victory during wartime). This came to mean more generally that elfish attachments to things or people should be avoided so as not to become elated over good fortune or depressed over misfortune. Lord Krishna emphasised that attachments (longings for people, possessions, or other non-permanent things) bring sorrow, fear, and anger. These emotions results in loss of understanding, which leads to perishing. Finally, the way of devotion was meant for the lower peasant or common people’s caste, emphasising the relationship to Lord Krishna himself. For most of society, then, love and worship of God – which involved surrender to the divine will – was the surest way to accumulate good karma and ultimately merge with God.
Practice
Hindus focus on ritual and cultural practices, family-oriented rites of passage, annual festivals, and pilgrimages, spending less attention on specific doctrines like those described above. Vedic rituals and worship often involve icons or images (representing various aspects of the Supreme God, Brahman). Hindus do not worship millions of gods (as some critics claim), but rather worship many deities who are believed to be manifestations of the one supreme God (Basu, 2017). Puja (meaning “honouring or showing reverence for the deity”) involves invocations, prayers, songs, and rituals. These rituals may include the offering and sharing of food (in earlier Vedic times called “sacrifices”) as one might do for a guest to show honour for that person. Worship involves expressions of gratitude to the deity for allowing them to be born into this world and dependence on the deity for everything. Rituals reflect the belief that all persons are equal before God and part of God (despite being of different castes or classes in society). Hindus worship in temples, which may be buildings located in the community or small shrines located in private homes. The Hindu priest is a clergy person trained to perform services or sacrifices at a temple. The priest is different than a “guru,” who is a Hindu teacher or wise man (not necessarily a priest).
Meditation my be performed in order to focus the mind on a single object, word or sound that represents the inner spiritual Self (atman) as part of God (Paratman). Yoga is a practice that combines meditation and physical postures, and originated in the ascetic practices of ancient India. Yoga (and the practitioner called a “yogin”) is mentioned in the earliest of the Upanishads, the Brihadaranyaka (1:5:23) and in the Bhagavad Gita (6:1-4). Yoga (meaning in Sanskrit “to unite” mind and body) has evolved over time into a group of mental, physical, and spiritual disciplines, with the best known forms today being Hatha and Raja yoga. Systematic research indicates that 8.9% of adults in the U.S. report they practiced yoga at least once during the past 12 months (Cramer et al., 2016). However, the Westernised form of yoga that emphasises exercise, postures, and breathing techniques is quite different from the yoga practiced in India (Adler, 2012).
The practice of yoga by Hindus in India is actually not very frequent, at least according to anecdotal reports (Roy, 2010). In one of the few epidemiologic studies of yoga from India, researchers found that only 4% of Indian adults (43 of 904) practiced yoga (Nayak et al., 2011). The most common form of stress relaxation practised by Hindus in that study was “religious activity,” which far surpassed yoga in prevalence. One report of patients with schizophrenia in India found that among those who were eligible to participate in a clinical trial involving yoga, more than half (56.8%) declined to participate; although logistical factors were primary in preventing participation, other reasons for refusal included not being willing to practice yoga, religious reasons for not participating, and other personal reasons (Baspure et al., 2012). Thus, while the origins of yoga are in the Hindu scriptures, the practice is surprisingly not very common among Hindus in India.
Transcendental Meditation (TM) is a form of meditation developed by Maharishi Mahesh Yogi (known as “the guru to the Beatles”) in the mid-1900s. TM has its origin in the Advaita Vendata school of Hindu philosophy and religious practice. The prevalence of TM among Hindus in India is unknown, but not likely high since TM is largely a Western meditative practice.
Society
Society in early India was organised into four classes called castes, a practice that to some extent still exists today. The castes are based on four parts of the human body described in a Vedic hymn that serve as a model for the structure of community (Rigveda 10:90). Those castes are brahmins (or priests and teachers who, as noted above, traditionally read, taught, and interpreted the Vedas), kshatriyas (warriors or nobles), vaishyas (peasants or common people), and shudras (servants or slaves). A person’s case is determined by the family that he or she is born into, and that person is expected to follow the same occupational profession as other members of the family/caste. All four castes, at least in theory, are to be respected equally, although represent different levels of “purity,” with brahmins representing the most pure, which was necessary since they performed the sacrifices (at least in early Vedic times).
Story
Stories of interactions between humans and divine beings have for millennia held the Hindu community together, provided role models, and given meaning to daily events and relationships. These narratives include the stories of Rama and his wife, Sita; Lord Krishna and his female companion, Radha; Shiva and his lover, Parvati; and Devi, known as the demon-slayer. In these stories, God enters into the world as human being and interact with others to combat evil and promote good, endorse right behaviour, and address social problems. These stories teach how one should live based on the principles of dharma.
Devotion
This aspect of Hinduism has the most overlap with Western religious traditions such as Christianity, and Catholicism in particular. Bhakti (“devotion” or “attachment”) is the word given to loving and worshipping God as manifested by various Hindu deities or by Indian poets or saints. Practicing devotion to these manifestations of God is a big part of Hindu life. The writings of Indian poets and saints have been critical to the evolution of the caste system, image worship, religious vows, pilgrimages, and acts of self-discipline or denial.
Conclusions
The Hindu religion involves the elements of doctrine, practice, society, story, and devotion. Hindu beliefs focus on dharma (world-preserving actions based on moral and religious laws), moksha (non-attachment to the materialistic world), and karma (the direct effect of one’s actions on present and future reincarnated lives). Hindu practices involve rituals, meditations, family-oriented rites of passage, festivals, and pilgrimages. Vedic rituals and worship often involve icons or images that represent various aspects of the Supreme God, Brahman. Society was organised in the past and to some extent even today around the four basic castes (priests/teachers, warriors/nobles, common people, and servants/slaves). Stories involving Rama, Lord Krishna, Shiva, and Devi provide role models and give meaning to daily events and relationships. Finally, devotion involves loving and worshiping the Supreme God in God’s many manifested forms through the worship of various Hindu deities, Indian poets and saints. This leads to a fuller discussion in the next chapter of what the term “God” means in Hinduism.