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It is well known that the Buddha wrote nothing, and that for several generations His teachings were preserved by purely oral means. Only when the orally transmitted traditions were finally written down did there come into existence what we call the Buddhist scriptures or the canonical literature of Buddhism. Following the classification adopted during the period of oral transmission, this vast body of material was traditionally known as the Tripitaka or “Three Collections”, the three being the Vinaya Pitaka or Collection of Monastic Discipline, the Sutra Pitaka or Collection of Discourses, and the Abhidharma Pitaka or Collection of Further Doctrine. Both spiritually and historically speaking, the most important of the three is the Sutra Pitaka, and references to the Ten Precepts, in one form or another, are to be found in each of the four (or in the case of the Pali Tipitaka five) agamas or nikayas of which this Pitaka consists.
In the case of the Pali recension of the Tripitaka, the first reference to the Ten Precepts is to be found in the Kutadanta Sutta, the fifth sutta of the Digha-Nikaya or “Collection of Long Discourses”. This sutta deals with the subject of sacrifice, and is concerned to establish the superiority of the purely moral and spiritual “sacrifice” taught by the Buddha over the bloody sacrifices of the old Brahminical religion. The brahmin Kutadanta, who gives his name to the title of the sutta, has assembled many hundreds of animals in readiness for a great sacrifice, but not knowing how to perform it, with its threefold method and its sixteen accessory instruments (another important instance of this numerical group), he decides to go and ask the Buddha, who knows all about such things. In response to Kutadanta’s enquiry the Buddha relates the story of a great king of former times called Mahavijita. This king, too, had wanted to offer a great sacrifice, and had asked the royal chaplain to instruct him how the sacrifice should be performed. The royal chaplain (who it turns out, was the Buddha Himself in a previous existence) had thereupon given what was, in effect, a systematic allegorisation of the entire sacrificial procedure. Among other things he told the king – and it is with this part of the sutta that we are at present concerned – about the different kinds of men who would come to his sacrifice.
Now there will come to your sacrifice, Sire, men who destroy the life of living things, and men who refrain therefrom – men who take what has not been given, and men who refrain therefrom – men who act evilly in respect of lusts, and men who refrain therefrom – men who speak lies, and men who do not – men who slander, and men who do not – men who speak rudely, and men who do not – men who chatter vain things, and men who refrain therefrom – men who covet, and men who covet not – men who harbour ill-will, and men who harbour it not – men whose views are wrong, and men whose views are right.
Here the Ten Precepts, in their positive and negative forms, are clearly referred to. After being given further instruction by the Buddha, who sets forth for his benefit the successive stages of spiritual progress, Kutadanta realises what is the best sacrifice of all and obtains the pure and spotless Eye of Truth, thus becoming a Stream-Entrant. The fact that the Ten Precepts should be referred to, in this sutta, in the context of a story of former times is interesting, suggesting as it does that for the compilers of the Collection of Long Discourses this particular ethical formula was of great antiquity, or that it belonged, as we would say, to the earliest days of Buddhism.
Passing from the Digha-Nikaya to the Majjhima-Nikaya or “Collection of Middle Length Discourses”, we find a detailed exposition of the Ten Precepts in the important Sevitabba-asevitabba-sutta, or “Discourse on What is to be Followed and What is Not to be Followed” (Majjhima-Nikaya No. 114). The exposition is given not by the Buddha but by Sariputta, who explains to the monks what he understands to be the meaning in full of what has just been spoken by the Buddha in brief. There are two kinds of bodily conduct, the Buddha has told them, two kinds of vocal conduct, and two kinds of mental conduct, as well as two kinds of arising of thoughts, two kinds of assumption of perception, two kinds of assumption of views, and two kinds of assumption of individuality, and in the case of each dyad there is one kind which should be followed and one which should not be followed. Sariputta explains this by distinguishing between that kind of bodily conduct etc. as a result of which unskilled (akusala) states of mind grow much and skilled (kusala) states decrease and that kind as a result of which unskilled states of mind decrease and skilled states of mind grow much. The first kind should not be followed, the second kind should be followed. Applying this to bodily conduct, vocal conduct, and mental conduct (the four other dyads appear to be treated as sub-divisions of mental conduct), he describes in each case what kind of conduct makes unskilled states of mind grow and skilled states decrease and vice versa. In this way he describes, in some detail, the ten akusala-dhammas from which a man should abstain and the ten kusala-dhammas which he should observe and cultivate, i.e. he describes the Ten Precepts. (Significantly, it is only bhikkhus or “monks” who are present throughout the sutta.)
As an example of Sariputta’s exposition, all of which is approved and in fact repeated verbatim by the Buddha, let me quote part of his explanation of the content of the eighth and ninth Precepts, i.e. abstention from covetousness and from malevolence and the cultivation of their opposites. First he is careful to make clear what it is he is explaining. In expositions of this sort we can, perhaps, see the beginnings of the Abhidkarma with which the name of Sariputta is, of course, associated.
“I, monks, say that mental conduct is of two kinds, one of which is to be followed and the other which is not to be followed; and there is this disparity in mental conduct.” This was said by the Lord. In reference to what was it said? Revered sir, if a certain kind of mental conduct is followed and unskilled states of mind grow much, skilled states of mind decrease, this kind of mental conduct is not to be followed.
And what kind of mental conduct, revered sir, does a man follow that unskilled states of mind grow much in him, skilled states of mind decrease? As to this, revered sir, someone is covetous; he covets that which is the property of another, thinking: “O might that which is the other’s be mind”; he is malevolent in thought, corrupt in mind and purpose, and thinks: “Let these beings be killed or slaughtered or annihilated or destroyed, or may they not exist at all.” If this kind of mental conduct is followed, revered sir, unskilled states of mind grow much, skilled states of mind decrease.
And what kind of mental conduct, revered sir, does a man follow that unskilled states of mind decrease in him, skilled states of mind grow much? As to this, revered sir, someone is not covetous; he does not covet that which is the property of another, thinking: “O might that which is the other’s be mine”; he is not malevolent in thought, not corrupt in mind and purpose, but thinks: “Let these beings, free from emnity, peaceable, secure and happy, look after self.” If this kind of mental conduct is followed, revered sir, unskilled states of mind decrease, skilled states of mind grow much. When the Lord said: “I, monks, say that mental conduct is of two kinds, one of which is to be followed and the other of which is not to be followed; and there is this disparity in mental conduct,” it was said in reference to this.”
Though the Sevitabba-asevitabba-sutta is perhaps the most important of the Pali canonical sources of the Ten Precepts, there are a number of others also. In particular there is an important group of about fifty short suttas in the Anguttara-Nikaya or “Collection of Gradual (or Numerical) Sayings”, i.e. sayings on the ones, the twos, the threes and so on up to the elevens. Many of these suttas differ only in respect of the place at which they were delivered, and the person to whom the teaching was addressed, the speaker being in all cases the Buddha Himself. Some suttas resemble the Kutadanta Sutta in that the observance of the Ten Precepts is represented as being a better way of offering a sacrifice, or performing rites of purification, or making offerings to the dead.
Among the suttas of this type there is one (untitled) sutta which is characteristic of the whole group. In this sutta the Buddha explains to Cunda the silversmith, who finds satisfaction in the purifying rites of “the brahmins of the west who carry waterpots”, in what real purification consists. After describing how the Ten Precepts are observed in their negative form, He proceeds to describe how they are observed in their positive form.
But, Cunda, threefold is cleansing by body, fourfold is cleaning by speech, threefold is cleansing by mind. And How is cleansing by body threefold?
Herein, Cunda, a certain one abandons taking life, abstains therefrom; he has laid aside the rod, has laid aside the knife; he dwells modest, charitable, feeling compassion towards every living creature.
He abandons taking what is not given, abstains therefrom; the property of another, situated in jungle or in village, if not given, he takes not with thievish intent.
In sexual desires he abandons wrong action, abstains therefrom. He has no intercourse with girls in ward of mother or father, brother, sister or relatives (or clan), with girls lawfully guarded, already plighted to a husband and protected by the rod, even with girls crowned with the flower-garlands (of betrothal). Thus, Cunda, threefold is cleansing by body.
And how is cleansing by speech fourfold? Herein, Cunda, a certain one abandons lying, abstains therefrom. When cited to appear before the council or a company or amid his relatives or guild-men or before the royal family and asked to bear witness with the words: “Come, good fellow! Say what you know,” not knowing, he says, “I know not”; not having seen, he says, “I saw not”; having seen, he says, “I saw”. Thus for his own sake or for the sake of others or to get some carnal profit or other he does not utter any deliberate falsehood.
Abandoning slanderous speech he abstains therefrom. When he hears something at one place he does not proclaim it elsewhere to bring about a quarrel between the parties; thus he brings together the discordant, restores harmony, harmony is his delight, he exults in, is passionately fond of harmony; he utters speech that makes for harmony. Also he abandons harsh speech, abstains therefrom. Whatsoever speech is blameless, pleasant to the ear, affectionate, going to the heart, urbane, agreeable to many folk, delightful to many folk, of such speech he is a speaker. Also abandoning idle babble he abstains therefrom; he speaks in season, of facts, of the aim, of dhamma, of discipline; he utters speech worth treasuring up, speech seasonable and worth listening to, discriminating and concerned with the aim.
Thus, Cunda, fourfold is cleansing by speech. And how is cleansing by mind threefold?
Here a certain one is not covetous; he covets not the property of another, thinking: O that what is another’s were mine! He is not malevolent of heart, the thoughts of his heart are not corrupt. He wishes: Let these beings carry about the self in peace, free from enmity, free from sorrow and in happiness.
Also he has right view; he is reasonable in outlook, holding that there are such things as gift, offering, oblation, fruit and ripening of deeds done well or ill; that this world is, that the world beyond is; that mother, father and beings of supernatural birth (in other worlds) do exist; that there are in the world recluses and brahmins who have gone rightly, who fare rightly, men who of their own comprehension have realised this world and the world beyond and thus declare it.
Thus, Cunda, threefold is the cleansing by the mind. So these are the ten ways of right doing.
In other suttas the Buddha speaks of the observance and the non-observance of the Ten Precepts (usually in their negative form only) in terms of the hither and the further shore, Dhamma and not-Dhamma, the bright and the dark way, and so on, thus making it clear that the Ten Precepts represent a pattern of ethical behaviour that can be looked at in a number of different ways, and from a number of different points of view. In several suttas, moreover, the Buddha speaks in terms of one’s possessing or not possessing ten, or twenty, or thirty, or forty meritorious or demeritorious qualities. The ten qualities are equivalent to one’s observing (or not observing) the Ten Precepts, the twenty qualities to one’s not only observing (or not observing) them oneself, but also encouraging (or not encouraging) another to observe them too. Similarly, the thirty qualities consist in one’s observing the Ten Precepts oneself, encouraging another to do likewise, and giving one’s approval thereto (as well as the opposites of these), while the forty qualities are the thirty qualities plus speaking in praise, or not speaking in praise, of the Ten Precepts. Here the self-regarding and other-regarding aspects of the ethical and spiritual life are given equal prominence.
The canonical sources of the Ten Precepts are also to be found in the Sanskrit recension of the Tripitaka, including the Mahayana sutras. Since the fact that the Ten Precepts were actually taught by the Buddha, and are indeed to be found in the Buddhist scriptures, has already been sufficiently established. I shall deal with the Sanskrit canonical sources of the Ten Precepts even more summarily than with their Pali counterparts. The Sanskrit recension of the Tripitaka does not, of course, survive complete in the original language. Of the portions that do survive, one of the most interesting and important is the Mahavastu, a work which purports to belong to the Vinaya-Pitaka of the Lokuttaravadins, a sub-school of the Mahasanghikas, though it does not deal with Vinaya or monastic discipline in the ordinary sense of the term at all. The Mahavastu is, in fact, a highly devotional “legendary biography” of the Buddha, interspersed with numerous Jatakas or Birth Stories. It is in one of the Jatakas that the reference to the Ten Precepts occurs.
The Jataka in question is the Kinnari Jataka, a charming tale of love, adventure, and magic that recalls the Arthurian romances and the stories of the Arabian Nights entertainment rather than the sort of material normally found in the Buddhist scriptures, especially the Vinaya-Pitaka. There is no time even to summarise the Kinnari Jataka, but at one point Prince Sudhanu, who is the hero of the tale and, therefore, the Buddha Himself in a previous existence, attends the great Brahminical sacrifice which King Sucandrima is about to perform “with every kind of animal”, including Manohara, the Kinnari or “elf maiden”, the heroine of the tale, who has just been captured. When Prince Sudhanu asks the King why so many living beings (including the unfortunate Kinnari) are enclosed in the sacrificial enclosure, and what profit there is in the sacrifice, the King replies that the living beings who will be slain in the sacrifice will go to heaven, while he himself will be reborn in heaven a number of times equal to the number of beings he will slay in the sacrifice.
The prince is deeply shocked, and tells the King that this is a wrong view, since the highest rule of dharma (paramam dharmam) is not to cause harm (ahimsa). To take life is not dharma, he declares; to abstain from taking life is dharma. Similarly, to steal is not dharma; not to steal is dharma. In this way Sudhanu enunciates the Ten Precepts. Indeed, he does more than that. Between the third and fourth precepts he inserts an extra precept, relating to the drinking of intoxicating liquor and spirits. It is interesting, though, that after enunciating the precepts he concludes by saying that the path of the ten right actions is dharma. Those who follow the path of the ten wrong actions, he tells the King, are reborn in hell. Those who follow the path of the ten right actions are reborn in heaven. In the present instance the path taken by the King is not the path to heaven; it is the path that leads to hell.
So impressed is King Sucandrima by this exposition of the Dharma that he releases all the living things he had brought together for the sacrifice, including the Kinnari, whereupon Sudhanu and Manohara, who have of course fallen in love, leave for the prince’s own city – but this is only the beginning of the tale.
Few of the Mahayana sutras survive in the original Sanskrit, most of them being extant only in Chinese and/or Tibetan translation. Among those still available in Sanskrit is the Astasahasrika-prajnaparamita or “Perfection of Wisdom in 8,000 Lines”, in which the Buddha, addressing the Arhat Subhuti, speaks of the signs of an irreversible Bodhisattva, i.e. a Bodhisattva who, having renounced the possibility of Nirvana for himself alone, is irreversible from Supreme Perfect Enlightenment for the benefit of all living beings. Such an irreversible Bodhisattva, the Buddha says, undertakes to observe the ten avenues or ways of wholesome action. He himself observes, and instigates others to observe, abstention from taking life and so on, down to abstention from wrong views.
“It is quite certain that an irreversible Bodhisattva observes the ten ways of wholesome action, and instigates others to observe them, incites and encourages them to do so, establishes and confirms others in them. Even in his dreams he never commits offences against those ten precepts, and he does not nurse such offences in his mind. Even in his dreams an irreversible Bodhisattva keeps the ten wholesome paths of action present in his mind.”
One of the most important of the Mahayana sutras that do not survive in the original Sanskrit, but only in Chinese and Tibetan translation, is the Vimalakirtinirdesa or “Exposition of Vimalakirti”. Here the purity of the kusala-karma-pathas or ten ways of skilful action, as the Ten Precepts are termed in this context, is said to be the Buddha-ksetra or Buddha-field of the Bodhisattva. It is from the ten paths of skilful action, moreover, that the Tathagata’s body (kaya) is born. The ten ways of skilful action are one of the ways in which, according to Vimalakirti, the Blessed Lord Sakyamuni expounds the Dharma here in the Saha world, and so on. Finally, the Ten Precepts are mentioned in the celebrated third chapter of the Suvarnaprabhasa Sutra or “Sutra of Golden Light”, the Chapter on Confession, which probably forms the original nucleus of the entire work, and they are the principal subject matter of the “Discourse on the Ten Wholesome Ways of Action”, a short work said to have been translated into Chinese from the Sanskrit.
Having shown that the Ten Precepts observed by members of the Western Buddhist Order actually were taught by the Buddha, and that references to them are found throughout the Tripitaka, we are now in a position to turn to the question of why the total transformation of the individual in which the act of Going for Refuge finds, and must find, expression, is represented more adequately by the Ten Precepts than by another set of precepts.