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Theories Concerning the Origin of the Indo-Aryans
It is very difficult to arrive at any definite decision about the original home of the Indo-Aryans. There is considerable controversy among scholars about where they came from. For many decades archaeologists, anthropologists, historians and philologists have independently or conjointedly been trying to discover the original home of the Indo-Aryans. Through their research they have developed various theories, but have not yet been able to arrive at a common conclusion.
It is generally believed that the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans were not indigenous to India, but migrated from some other region. According to some scholars, such as Gafurov, they came from Central Asia. According to Tilak, the forefathers of the Indo-Aryans came from the Arctic. Bender thought that the ancestors of the Indo-Aryans most probably came from the region where the Lithuanians have lived “for a least five thousand years.” Bongard-Levin is of the opinion that the ancestral home of the Aryans was the region of southeastern Europe between the Dnieper and the Ural mountains. Some say that the migration of the Indo-Aryans into India probably started around 1700 B.C. and continued till 1200 B.C. However, Swami Vivekananda, one of the greatest exponents of Hinduism, believed that the Indo-Aryans were indigenous to India, and had not come from anywhere else.
Aryans and their Gotra
In ancient times the Aryans were nomadic people. They had not yet formed an urban society. Their wealth and livelihood depended mainly on raising cattle. They constantly herded their cattle from one grazing ground to another. In certain seasons the cattle needed protection from the ravages of harsh weather. During a severe winter on the rainy season the cattle were kept in secure shelters.
A shelter for cattle is called a gotra in Sanskrit. As these shelters were relatively small in number, many Indo-Aryan families were obliged to put their cattle in the same shelter or gotra. As a result, the cattle of one family often got mixed up with the cattle of other families and disputes arose over their ownership. To resolve such disputes, supervisors were appointed to act as judges and give fair and just verdicts.
These supervisors were endowed with great moral and spiritual virtues. They were appointed as supervisors because of their exalted character and were called Gotrapati, meaning Lord of Master of the Gotra. Some of them were later recognised as spiritually illuminated souls. Among these highly venerated Gotrapatis are Shandilya, Bharadvaja, Kashyapa and others, who are considered to be rishis (lit., seer or overseer) or sages.
When an Aryan of one clan or family met someone belonging to another Aryan clan or family, he introduced himself by using the name of his Gotrapati, such as Shandilya or Bharadvaja. The descendants of these Aryans, now called Hindus, carry on that same tradition and use the Gotrapati’s name to identify themselves. Every Hindu, therefore, is expected to remember the name of his ancestral Gotra. To avoid inbreeding, marriage between members of the same Gotra was forbidden. But, now that many centuries have passed, that custom is not followed as strictly.
The Caste System
Originally the caste system has a qualitative basis and all castes were treated equally.
Indo-Aryans were divided into four castes or social categories, known as the Caste System. Such division was originally based on the inherent qualities or “career potential” of the individuals. A person naturally endowed with noble qualities like truthfulness, serenity of mind, nonviolence, compassion, and unselfishness belonged to the Brahmin or priestly caste. Possessed of great spiritual and moral virtues, he was considered the right person to teach and give spiritual guidance to others. One naturally endowed with martial qualities was fit for the Kshatriya or military caste. Kings and administrators generally came from the Kshatriya case. Similarly, anyone naturally gifted with business acumen belonged to the Vaishya or merchant caste. Others belonged to the Shudra caste. This fourth caste included labourers and artisans, etc.
Aryans who were exempted from the caste system, and the outcastes or untouchables
Not all Aryans adhered to the caste system. For instance, all renouncing monks or Sannyasins were beyond caste rules. Though not belonging to any caste, they were respected by one and all. Non-Aryans, and the progeny of Aryans who violated the laws of Aryan society pertaining to food, matrimony, and so on, were usually considered outcastes. According to Manu, the most famous lawgiver, “A twice-born man who knowingly eats mushrooms, a village pig, garlic, a village cock, onions, or leeks, will become an outcaste.”
Outcastes, for obvious reasons, did not enjoy the same status as those belonging to the caste system. They had lower status in Aryan society, but there is no evidence to prove that they were ill-treated or hated at that time. Much later, during the decadent stage of the caste system, outcastes were treated as inferior and given the name “untouchables.”
Caste system became degraded when made hereditary
Originally every caste was given equal importance. Each was considered essential for Aryan society. Later, as time passed, vested interests crept in. Caste, originally determined by the qualities and aptitudes of the individual, was made hereditary by self-interested people in positions of power and authority. They wanted to perpetuate their caste-based social privileges. As a result, the caste system degenerated. Some castes were artificially made superior or “higher” and others inferior or “lower.”
Brahmins, who belonged to the highest caste, comprised the learned priestly class. Traditionally, they were not rich. Nevertheless, they held positions of respect and honour in society. Kshatriyas, belonging to the second highest caste, held the positions of kings, administrators, or warriors and could enjoy wealth and power. Vaishyas belonged to the next lower caste. Even though they could never be priests, kings or military officers, they could find satisfaction from wealth earned through trade. But Shudras, reduced to the lowest caste and denied many privileges, including Vedic and other higher education, suffered the most. This disparity in privileges corrupted the caste system and eventually bred intercaste jealousy, hatred, and conflict. Under these circumstances, the condition of the untouchables or the outcastes became even worse.
The effects of repeated foreign aggression on Hindu India and the caste system
As centuries passed, Aryan society underwent a lot of change. Starting in 327 B.C., India was repeatedly invaded by many foreign aggressors, including the Greeks, Huns, Arabs, Turks, Afghans, Persians, Mongols, Portuguese, French and British. From the 13th century onwards the Muslims rules the greater part of India for nearly 600 years, until the British too over power at the end of the 18th century. India shook off the British rule in 1947 and became an independent nation. All these invasions, many years of foreign rule, and the passage of time left their impact on Hindu society. As a result, society changed, and the caste system changed along with it.
During the British rule, the Brahmins were the first to benefit from English education. Giving up their caste-based traditional professions of priesthood and teaching, many became medical doctors, engineers, businessmen, government servants, and lawyers. Brahmins even went into military service. Members of the other higher castes who took advantage of English education also enjoyed similar opportunities. Still the fate of the culturally and economically disadvantaged members of the lowest caste and the untouchables remained more or less the same.
Even though the original character of the caste system was changed beyond recognition, the false sense of superiority of one caste over another still lingered on in some parts of India.
Steps taken to cure the degraded caste system
Since becoming an independent nation in 1947, the government of India has given all citizens of India, irrespective of caste, colour, sec or religion, equal access to higher education and other facilities provided by the government. Special scholarships and stipends are given to members of the underprivileged classes to encourage them to pursue higher education. The government also passed a law in 1949 banning untouchability.
Through the years many Hindu saints have strongly disapproved of the decadent caste system and refused even to recognise it. For instance, both Shri Chaitanya and Shri Ramakrishna taught their followers that lovers of God do not have any caste whatsoever. Many social reformers also condemned the degenerated caste system. Mahatma Gandhi (1869-1948), the well-known freedom fighter and political leader of India, was very critical of the ills of this system.
Thinking people of India today unanimously condemn the severely weakened and yet lingering specter of the caste system. Yet some politicians and others with ulterior motives try to keep the system alive by promoting intercaste hatred and conflict. Nevertheless, their efforts are bound to fail, because more and more people are getting educated and no longer believe in this system. Eventually, educating the masses and improving their living standard, coupled with a healthy religious education, will eradicate this decadent system. As proof of this some intercaste marriages have lately been taking place among the educated and relatively more affluent urban population of India.
While India has its caste system, Europe has its “class system,” and the United States has it own social strata based on wealth. Swami Vivekanada used to say that any attempt to remove the caste system forcibly will only cause a similar system to take its place. According to him, efforts should be made to raise the educational, cultural and economic levels of Hindus from the so-called lower castes up to the cultural level of the so-called highest caste Brahmins. Pulling the Brahmins down to the level of the culturally disadvantaged lowest caste is not a healthy solution. It will only cause further degradation of the Hindu society.
The Four Stages of Aryan Life
In ancient times the Hindus, known then as Aryans, were expected to go through the four stages of Aryan life:
Let your conduct be marked by right action, including study and teaching of the scriptures; by truthfulness in word, deed, and thought; by self-denial and the practice of austerity; by poise and self-control; by performance of the everyday duties of life with a cheerful heart and an unattached mind.
Speak the truth. Do your duty. Do not neglect the study of the scriptures. Do not cut the thread of progeny. Swerve not from truth. Deviate not from the path of the good. Revere greatness.
Let your mother be a god to you; let your father be a god to you; let your teacher be a god to you; let your guest also be a god to you. Do only such actions as are blameless. Always show reverence to the great.
Whatever you give to others, give with love and reverence. Gifts must be given in abundance, with joy, humility, and compassion.
If at any time there is doubt with regard to right conduct, follow the practice of great souls, who are guileless, of good judgement, and devoted to truth.
Thus conduct yourself always. This is the injunction, this is the teaching, and this is the command of the scriptures.
After graduation the students returned home, married and entered the second stage of Aryan life – the stage of a family man or householder.
In ancient times, girls also resided in their teachers’ homes and received education similar to that of boys. Later, as society became more rigid, it became customary for girls to be educated at home. They were then taught by their male relatives. The custom of begging food was observed by them only within the confines of their homes. The wearing of deerskin, tree-bark and matted locks by girls was banned. Nevertheless, around the 5th century B.C., there were many learned women teachers enjoying the same status and positions of honour as men teachers did. Among the great women scholars of the Vedic period were Gargi, the daughter of Vachaknu, and Pathyasvati, who for her scholarship was given the title Vach, meaning “the goddess of learning.” In the early Vedic period there were also women sages; Vishvavara, Ghosha, and Apala, to name a few. Girls of the Vedic period also learned singing, dancing, the playing of musical instruments, painting, sewing, poetry-writing, carpentry, the making of garlands, and other fine arts.
Nowadays that tradition is no longer followed. Students no longer live and are educated in their teacher’s home, nor do they dress in deerskin, bark and grass girdles, or have matted locks. Begging food from neighbours’ homes is no longer done. The educational system in India today is exactly like the educational system of any other country in the West. Teachers in schools and colleges work for a salary as their counterparts in western countries do. Teachers give secular education to the students, and society no longer objects to their accepting a salary.
Nevertheless, the ancient tradition of not accepting money for spiritual education is still honoured in India. Any spiritual teacher or holy man who violates this rule brings only disgrace to this time-honoured tradition of Hinduism.
Whatever changes have occurred in the ancient educational system are mostly the result of nearly two hundred years of British rule in India, which ended in 1947. Now Hindu girls attend western style schools and colleges, some of which are coeducational. Just as the boys do, they study humanities, science, engineering, medicine, and arts and crafts. Generally neither boys nor girls study the Vedas anymore. That tradition has gone out of style. Still, they go to temples and observe the rituals of their religion during the many religious festivals celebrated throughout the year.
Garhasthya – the second stage of ancient Aryan life
This stage of life started with marriage. Upon returning home the student, with the permission of his teacher, married a young woman of his own caste, but not of the same Gotra. After marriage he lived the life of a householder following the dictates of the scriptures.
Among other things, he had to perform the daily worship ritual called the agnihotra where fire is used as the symbol of God, study the Vedas regularly, earn an honest living, practice hospitality, raise children, be charitable to the poor, honour his elders, and take care of his parents and the other relatives living with him. According to the sage Manu, the renowned law-giver of ancient India, it was the householder’s duty to treat women with honour and respect and make them happy by giving desirable gifts on holidays and festivals. In the words of Manu, “Where the female relations live in grief, the family soon wholly perishes; but that family where they are not unhappy ever prospers.”
The husband and wife were expected to observe complete fidelity, and it was their duty to create a happy atmosphere at home. “In that family, where the husband is pleased with his wife and the wife with her husband, happiness will assuredly be lasting,” says Manu. Moreover, such a family provided an ideal loving environment for children to grow up in. Great important was given to raising noble children.
The wife was called ardhangini (lit. having half a body) in the sense that she and her husband were to halves constituting the body of an ideal marriage. She was also called sahadharmini, which means “the partner in spiritual life.” Both the husband and the wife were expected to help each other in their spiritual growth. A member of Aryan society, no matter in which stage of life, was always reminded that the ultimate goal of human life is God-realisation.
Men were allowed to practice polygamy. A widower could remarry, but usually not a widow who had to practise celibacy and live like a nun. This double standard probably existed because Aryan society at that time was dominated by men. Divorce was not permitted. Marriage was considered a sacrament and was meant to last the entire lifetime of the partners.
In today’s Hinduism, however, divorce is permitted by a law enacted in 1955. Another law permitting the remarriage of widows was passed during British rule mainly through the efforts of the great 19th century Hindu reformer and scholar, Ishvar Chandra Vidyasagar (1820-1891). In spite of these laws benefitting Hindu women, very few divorces or widow-marriages take place in India except in the lower cultural and economic strata of the country. A negligible number of such cases has also occurred among the wealthy and upper middle-class Hindus in big cities, but they are the exception and not the rule. Despite the legalisation of divorce and widow-marriage, some stigma associated with them still persists. Such reforms have not yet been fully approved or accepted by the vast majority of Hindus. The government of India also passed a law banning polygamy; the Muslim population is, however, exempt from this law.
Vanaprasthya – the third stage of ancient Aryan life
According to the law-giver Manu, when a householder would “see his skin wrinkled, and his hair white,” his time for entering the third stage of life had come. He then retired to the forest, “either committing the care of his wife to his sons, or accompanied by her.” He lived in a humble hut, wore bark, animal skin, or tattered clothes; studied Vedas regularly and performed various worship rituals. His food was mainly vegetables, flowers, fruits and roots, either cooked or uncooked. He had a long beard, didn’t cut his hair, nor clip his nails. Or, in other words, he lived a life of great simplicity and religious austerity to achieve the spiritual goal of his life. This stage of life was obviously a preparation for the next stage of Aryan life, the stage of a monk or an ascetic.
As times have changed, Hindus no longer follow this ancient tradition. And yet, with the approach of old age, almost every Hindu starts remembering the ways of his ancestors. Even though not living in the forest, he becomes pensive and starts showing signs of genuine spiritual interest, either in order to depart from this world with dignity, or to have “spiritual liberation.” For this purpose many men and women move to holy places of pilgrimage like Varanasi, and live a retired life of prayer and worship.
Sannyasa – the fourth stage of Ancient Aryan life
This stage of Aryan life was a natural transition from the life of a hermit to the life of an ascetic or a monk. According to Baudhayana, a law-giver of ancient India, any of the following was fit to enter this stage of life: (1) a student who had just completed his period of studentship and was feeling an inner urge to renounce the world, (2) a childless householder, (3) a widower, (4) a wanderer and (5) a hermit. Anyone who was seventy years old and whose children had become settled in life was also considered fit to renounce the world and become a monk.
An ascetic or monk regularly shaved his head, clipped his nails, and sustained his body by begging food everyday from a maximum of seven homes. He slept under a tree, in a temple, or in an abandoned house. He constantly wandered from one place to another carrying a staff, begging bowl and water pot, no longer wearing the white clothes of the householder. He would not stay in any one place for more than a few days. He was exempted from performing the agnihotra and other obligatory rituals required of the Aryans belong to other stages of life. Nevertheless, he had to study the Vedas regularly.
According to the monastic ideal, a monk belongs to the entire world. Consequently, he severed all ties with his family. He took the vows of nonviolence, truthfulness, non-stealing, abstinence and tolerance. He obeyed his spiritual teacher, abstained from anger, avoided rashness of thought or action, and followed rules of cleanliness and purity about eating. He was required to think of himself as essentially the effulgent soul or Atman, and not an embodied being. His goal was to become God-realised soul by realising his identity with Brahman (God).
The Hindu monks of today more or less follow that same ancient ideal of Sannyasa or monasticism. Organised monasticism, however, was first introduced to the world by Gautama Buddha nearly 2500 years ago and later adopted by Hinduism.
Shankara, the great 8th century Hindu saint and philosopher of India, founded a monastic order known as the Dashnami Order. This order is not as well-organised and regimented as the Buddhist monastic order, but through the centuries it has played a very important role in Hinduism. Following the old and orthodox Hindu tradition, it mainly stresses individual spiritual growth along with the study and teaching of the scriptures.
The Ramakrishna Mission, a well-known monastic order founded on modern lines by Swami Vivekananda at the turn of the 20th century, encourages its members to engage in various philanthropic and humanitarian activities side-by-side with scriptural studies and spiritual practice. Their ordeal is to serve man as God and also to strive for their own spiritual enlightenment. The Ramakrishna Mission is the largest and most well-organised Hindu monastic order in India today. This monastic order, although an independent organisation, owes its lineage to Shankara. Its monks, by tradition, belong to the Puri branch of the Dashnami Order.
Today’s Hinduism, like any other ancient religion, has denominations or sects. Many of these sects have their own brands of monasticism based on the ancient Vedic ideal of asceticism.