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Many Buddhist beliefs and practices are described in the Buddhist scriptures (see Figure 1), writings that were often composed of the “sayings of the Buddha” as recorded by his followers. The volume of these scriptures is estimated to be 1000 times the content of the Bible. These are called buddhavacana or “word of the Buddha” and are referred to as sutras (in Sanskrit) or suttas (in Pali). The texts which Buddhists consider to be sacred (or “the canon”) vary depending on the particular branch of Buddhism.
In Theravada Buddhis, the Pali Canon or Tripitaka contains the sayings that have been accorded to the Buddha and are the earliest recorded (agreed on during the 1st Buddhist Council in 404 BCE, but not written down until the 4th Buddhist Council around 29 BCE). Tripitaka means “three baskets” and reflects three sections of the suttas: the Sutta Pitaka, the Vinaya Pitaka, and the Abhidhamma Pitaka. The first two were viewed as sayings of the Buddha, whereas the last one (Abhidhamma) is attributed to the Buddha, but was agreed on later.
An important Buddhist text from the Pali Canon is the Dhammapada (“Treasury of Truth”). This relatively short volume is a collection of sayings from the Buddha on moral and philosophical teachings. It makes up only a tiny fraction of the total Buddhist scriptures, but is perhaps one of the most widely read. The Dhammapada comes from the Khuddaka Nikaya portion of the Pali Canon (last portion of the Sutta Pitaka).
The scriptures of Mahayana Buddhism include additional sutras that are not found in the Pali Canon. The Mahayana sutras are as important as those in the Pali Canon, and so cannot be ignored. For example, there is the Chinese Buddhist canon (or Taisho Tripitaka or a-tsang-ching) of sutras recorded in the early centuries CE. While Mahayana Buddhists consider the Pali Canon as sacred, they revere these additional Mahayana sutras (sayings of the Buddha) as distinctive in their own right. The Lotus Sutra and Heart Sutra are examples of sutras that are particularly important to many Mahayana Buddhists. Vajrayana Buddhism branch of Mahayana Buddhism has additional scriptures special to Vajrayana Buddhists consider the Pali Canon as sacred along with their own scriptures.
Note that the Buddha’s teachings were passed down from generation to generation through his disciples by word of mouth and were not written down until hundreds of years later (nearly 400 years after the Buddha’s death). It is likely, then, that the sacred Buddhist texts available today include both the words of the Buddha and those of his followers who passed down his words (De Jong, 1993).
Buddhist Beliefs
Although beliefs vary in Buddhism, a core belief common to almost all Buddhists involves “taking refuge” in the Buddha (the model), the Dhamma (teachings of the Buddha, i.e., the law/truth), and the Sangha (followers of the Buddha, consisting of laypersons, monks or nuns) (Dhammapada 190). These are called the Three Jewels of Buddhism. Taking comfort or refuge in anything else, then, is contrary to Buddhist beliefs and therefore represents a false refuge or at least a refuge that is not secure (Dhammapada 188-189).
Figure 1: Historical time for Buddhism
Siddhartha Gautama (The Buddha)
(circa 567-484 BCE)
1st Buddhist Council
(sayings of Buddha agreed upon)
Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka
(404 BCE)
Abhidhamma Pitaka
(circa 300 BCE)
Theravada Buddhism
(emerges in 200-300 BCE)
(Burma, Cambodia, Laos, Thailand and Sri Lanka)
Pali Tipitaka or Pali Canon
(Sutta Pitaka, Vinaya Pitaka, Abhidhamma Pitaka)
(written down 29 BCE, during 4th Buddhist Council)
Minor Collection
Khuddaka Nikaya, part of the Sutta Pitaka, includes Dhammapada
Mahayana Tradition
(emerges in 100-200 CE)
(China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam)
Mahayana Sutras (Lotus and Wisdom sutras being most important)
Chinese Tripitaka
Vajrayana Buddhism
(emerges out of Mahayana Buddhism 400-600 CE)
(Tibet, India, Nepal, Bhutan, Mongolia)
Vajrayana tantras (600-700 CE)
Tibetan Canon (1300-1400 CE)
Sources: Carter & Palihawadana, 2000; Buddhism, 2015 and 2016; flesher, 2016; Buddhist Society, 2016 (dates are approximate, and the Buddha’s death may have been closer to 400 BCE than 500 BCE, according to Williams et al., 2012)
The Four Noble Truths represent the core of Buddhist doctrine (Dhammapada 273), and are reported to be his first teachings after having reached Enlightenment (Woodward, 1973). They are particularly important because they describe how craving results in suffering. The Four Noble Truth are:
1. Life is dukkha (suffering, pain, dissatisfaction, misery, lack of perfection). This includes being separated from loved ones and being attached to those who do not love in return. The realising of dukkha prompts a person to action. The Buddha illustrated this realisation by comparing it to someone who discovers his or her hair is on fire (Rhys Davids, 1971), requiring immediate action to put it out. This is how the must have Buddha felt when leaving his parental home, where he was protected and all needs provided, and then suddenly discovering that there was tremendous suffering in the surrounding community.
2. The cause of suffering is craving, i.e. desire for what one does not have. Craving arises from dependence on one’s feelings or emotions (vedana), which may be enjoyable, unpleasant, or neutral. The focus of craving may be (a) pleasurable experiences from food, sex, or drugs/alcohol; (b) a particular state of mind (looking forward to being with a loved one, going on a vacation, or having a pleasant experience); or (c) a desire to avoid unpleasant feelings.
3. The cessation of suffering is possible, i.e., that freedom, liberation from suffering is achievable. Cessation of suffering depends on the cessation of craving, the liberation from attachments of every kind. Cessation of suffering is achieved when one reaches Enlightenment or Nirvana – the true “refuge” from all suffering. The belief that such a state exists, that it can be reached, and the powerful yearning that results from it is called sraddha. Sraddha is often translated as “faith” (often related to faith in the Dhamma), which is different from the way the term faith is used in Western religions and in Christianity particularly, where faith means belief and trust in a personal God (although see below discussion of how the Dhamma may in some respects represent God).
4. The way leading to cessation of suffering is the Eightfold Path (Dhammapada 273-289). The Eightfold Path involves seeking right understanding, right intention, right action, right speech, right livelihood, right effort, right mindfulness, and right concentration.
The Eightfold Path
1. Right understanding (samma ditti) is the ability to distinguish wrong views (those that do not lead to Enlightenment) from right views (those that do). For example, a wrong view is that suffering can be escaped and lasting happiness can be achieved here through relationships, occupation, or any other activity (i.e., seeking a false refuge because of “ignorance”). A right view is that everything is subject to change and nothing is permanent, including the self, ego, or soul. Buddhists do not believe in “sin,” but rather emphasise that ignorance is to blame, which encourages a sense of compassion for those who are behaving badly.
2. Right intention (samma sankappa) involves motivation, purpose in life, and inclinations that naturally follow from right understanding. This involves a desire to renounce attachments, stop clinging to pleasure, wealth, power and fame, and to avoid hatred, all violence or cruelty resulting from unrestrained greed.
3. Right action (samma kammanta) involves a set of behaviours that are proscribed and a set that are prescribed. Proscribed are killing of any living beings, including animals, whereas prescribed behaviour is compassion on all. Proscribed are cheating, stealing, or otherwise gaining possessions by dishonest means, whereas prescribed behaviour is respect of others and their possessions. Proscribed is sexual misconduct such as adultery, rape, and other illicit sexual behaviours, whereas prescribed behaviour is to show respect for others.
4. Right speech (samma vacha) involves no lying, gossip, saying bad things about others (slander), or crude talk. Right speech is speaking softly, gently, affectionately, while avoiding angry, bitter, harsh or divisive speech. Right speech promotes peace and harmony between others.
5. Right livelihood (samma ajiva) means the avoidance of any occupation that may involve harm to others or contribute to their suffering. This might involve dealing in weapons or arms, drugs or intoxicants, slave trafficking, prostitution, or trickery of any kind (including high pressure sales). Originally (for monastics), it meant seeking to possess only what was essential to sustain life, which often meant begging for food.
These first five paths (understanding, intention, action, speech, and livelihood) focus on the wisdom and ethics of Buddhism, sometimes called the “five moral precepts,” and are the foundation on which the last three paths (involving mindfulness and meditation) rest. the 10 “”perfections” are derived from the first five paths: generosity, morality, vigour, wisdom, patience, truthfulness, resolve, loving kindness, equanimity, and without desire. The perfections are said to lead one to the awakened state if practiced diligently (as done by the Buddha in his past life immediately prior to this present one) (Gethin, 1998, p 18). The last three steps of the Eightfold Path deal with meditation, concentration, and control of the mind.
6. Right effort (samma vayama) means that people can change by personal effort, i.e., change the unwholesome states in their lives and increase or adopt wholesome states. This includes stopping whatever thoughts or actions stand in the way of ethical or compassionate behaviour, and letting go of greed, fear, hatred, or other negative mind states, especially guarding against unwholesome thoughts that might disrupt meditation or mindfulness. Effor like this is required to retrain the mind for effective meditation.
7. Right mindfulness (samma sati) includes constantly paying attention to whatever is happening in the present moment, including one’s actions. Right mindfulness keeps the mind in the present moment, rather than allowing wandering thoughts about the past or the future to interrupt. One purpose of remaining present-focused and being open to whatever arises is so that right views can guide activity and right efforts can be made to accomplish daily tasks. This is done when brushing one’s teeth, showering, and eating, as well as while working on the job and relating to co-workers, friends, and family.
8. Right concentration (samma samadhi) involves focusing on a single object and excluding everything else (in contrast to mindfulness). The goal is to unify the mind and bring conscious attention to a single point. This practice helps to train the mind and quiet the thoughts, leading to deep states of awareness and tranquility is through eight stages of meditation or Jhana: four form (rupa) and four formless (arupa) meditations leading to one-pointedness.
The Dhamma, the teachings of the Buddha (which includes the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path), is an essential concept in Buddhism (perhaps “the” essential concept). Williams and colleagues (2012, p. 6) quote Buddhist theologian Narada Thera as saying, “The original Pali term for Buddhism is Dhamma … Dhamma is that which really is. It is the doctrine of reality. It is a means of deliverance from suffering and deliverance itself. Whether the Buddhas arise or not, the Dhamma exists from all eternity.”
Buddhists, then, believe that the Dhamma is the ultimate truth and is the way of achieving liberation or reaching nirvana, the primary goal of Buddhism. Buddhists believe that the Dhamma is the absolute objective truth. In fact, Williams et al (2012, p 6) go on to say that “In using “Dharma” for his teaching the Buddha intentionally chose a term which was intended to indicate to others that he truly knew and taught how things finally are. Where others disagree, they do not have the Dharma. What they teach is in that respect its negation, Adharma.” Thus, Buddhism (while often existing with other religions) is strictly speaking an exclusive religion, i.e., it excludes other paths to the truth and to ultimate reality. Thus, Buddhist beliefs would conflict with those of religions such as Christianity, another exclusive religion, where Jesus claims “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me” (John 14:6).
Admittedly, not all Buddhist scholars would agree to what I have written above, i.e., about the exclusivity or elitism of Buddhism (furthermore, many Christian scholars would not agree that Christianity is exclusive). Some would argue that the Dhamma or Dharma is a topic that is very complicated, and that there are many different yet valid ways to discuss this sacred concept in Buddhism (for insights in this regard, see the glossary of terms, Insight Meditation Society, 2017). For example, there is a quote from Thich Nhat Hanh (199a) in his classic entry book into Buddhism where he says, “Whenever the Four Noble Truths and Noble Eightfold Path are practiced, the living Dharma is there. There are said to be 84,000 Dharma doors… To take refuge in the Dharma is to choose the doors that are most appropriate for us” (p 164). Elsewhere Hath notes, “The Buddha respected people’s desire to practice their own faith, so that is why he encouraged the Brahman man in his own language. If you enjoy walking meditation, practice walking meditation. If you enjoy sitting meditation, practice sitting meditation. But preserve your Jewish, Christian, or Muslim roots. That is the best way to realise the Buddha’s spirit. If you are cut off from your roots, you cannot be happy” (p 169). Thus, whether Buddhism in exclusive or inclusive will depend to some extent on who you read.
Buddhist Cosmology
Besides the Four Noble Truths and Eightfold Path, there are also Buddhist beliefs about how the world and universe are constructed. There is no creator or first cause according to “standard” Buddhist doctrine. As in Hinduism, Buddhists usually believe in reincarnation. Reincarnation involves a beginning-less and endless series of birth, life, death and rebirth (samsara) that a person seeks to escape from (Moksha) in order to reach nirvana. Nirvana represents a transcendent state free from enslaving bonds where suffering is gone and is characterised by profound peace and wisdom. Buddhists believe that the quality of each rebirth depends on a person’s karma or actions during past lives. There is rarely memory of prior lives, except perhaps among children. However, this varies depending on Buddhist tradition. For example, in the Tibetan tradition the Dali Lama had to be tested as a child for memory of his past life. Memory of past lives is also an attribute of a Buddha.
With regard to karma, the Buddha is reported to have given the following response to someone who asked him why there was such a variety in people’s life situations (healthy, sick, poor, rich, ugly, beautiful, fortunate, unfortunate, etc.): “All living beings have actions (Karma) as their own, their inheritance, their congenital cause, their kinsman, their refuge. It is Karma that differentiates beings into low and high states” (Sayadaw, n.d.).
According to Buddhist cosmology, there are six realms of existence that humans may go through in the un-awakened state that range from (1) hell (naraka-gati) to (2) hungry ghost (preta-gati) (consumed by getting things in life, sometimes portrayed as a famished person with a tiny mouth) to (3) animal (tiryagyoni-gati) (all different life forms) to (4) human (manusya-gati) to (5) demi-god or titan (asura-gati) (formless spirits detached from the world) to (6) god (deva-gati) realm. In the final god (deva) realm, one is born into the world into a wealthy, successful family, where the person has all their wants and desires fulfilled (as in the case of the Buddha). This final stage may involve a period prior to birth when one exists in “the heaven of the contented” (tusita), when one becomes a Bodhisattva (Gethin, 1998, pp 17-18). The belief is that a Bodhisattva will be reborn into the world to become a buddha when times are difficult and people need guidance on how to live (i.e., need a saviour of sorts).
However, when a person is reborn into the god/deva realm, this does not guarantee Enlightenment or a final release (moksha), since motivation at this stage may not be very strong because all of one’s material needs are being met. This could hinder the person from reaching the selfless, unattached state and ultimate release. Nevertheless, suffering is difficult to escape even in the best of circumstances, and disillusionment soon follows after all earthly desires have been fulfilled, as the early life of the Buddha illustrates.
Sansara (circle of death and rebirth) raises the question of what exactly is reborn. In Hinduism, there is belief that the soul or mind or consciousness or something transcendent (atman) is that which is reborn during the samsara cycle. However, given the Buddha’s early teachings about the doctrine of “no self” or anatta (i.e., no such thing as a self or an unchanging, permanent soul), this created a problem for Buddhists with belief in the cycle of death and rebirth since there had to be some kind of continuity between the entity that was reborn and accumulated karma from previous lives. Buddhist scholars from the Theravada tradition later began to teach that there was a type of continuity of the self in the same way that “a flame is transferred from one candle to another” or like being a wave in the ocean but not part of current (see Kalupahana 1975). According to some experts, the Buddha never said that there was no self or soul, but emphasised that the question itself was misguided, emphasising that one should focus on avoiding any attachment to the self or ego, which causes suffering (Thanissaro, 1996). Says Williams et al (2012, p. 24):
“I agree with Gombrich elsewhere, where he considers the possibility held by some scholars that the Buddha may really have taught a Self (atman; Pali: atta) instead of the not-Self (anatman; Pali: anatta) doctrine. He observes, “I myself find this claim that on so essential a point the Buddha has been misunderstood by all his follower somewhat [to use a Buddhist expression] “against the current” (Gombrich 1971:72 n. 18).”
The explanation of anatta, then, varies depending on the particular branch of Buddhism and expert that one consults.
This raises another interesting question. What happened to the Buddha after he died? Do traditional Buddhists believe that he simply became non-existent? According to Theravada scholar Rupert Gethin (1998, p. 28), the answer to that question presents a problem and so is somewhat vague:
“If we say that the Buddha exists, then the round of rebirth continues for the Buddha and the quest for an end to suffering has not been completed. On the other hand, to say that the Buddha simply does not exist is to suggest that the Buddhist quest for happiness amounts to nothing but the destruction of the individual being-something which is specifically denied in the texts. Hence the strict doctrinal formulation of Buddhist texts is this: one cannot say that the Buddha exists after death, one cannot say that he does not exist, one cannot say that he both exists and does not exist, and one cannot say that he neither exists nor does not exist.”
These considerations, then, raise questions about the impermanence of the self in Buddhism, and whether or not there is a place for God in this belief system (which I will address in the next chapter).
Buddhist Practices
Buddhism is primarily about action and intention (Williams et al., 2012, p. 26). Meditation is one of the primary ways by which Buddhists bring about change and movement towards Enlightenment, a state characterised by seven factors: mindfulness, investigation of dhamma, energy, rapture, tranquility, concentration or integration of mind, and equanimity (Carter and Palihawadana 2000, p 74). Among the major types of Buddhist meditation are samatha (common to all Indian religions, where the aim is to focus the mind on a single point and thereby reach a calm state), vipassana (insight meditation), and satipatthana (mindfulness meditation), anapanasati (focus on breath). There are also many other forms. Yet, today, meditation remains an uncommon practice among the majority of Buddhists outside the U.S. The self-discipline necessary to train the mind to focus and not wander is monumental (there is an unsubstantiated rumour that the reason tea became so popular in China was that it helped prevent those trying to meditate from falling asleep). Even among Asian Buddhists in the U.S. (where lack of time due to survival needs is less of an issue), 60% seldom or never meditate and only 14% meditate every day, which is even less frequent than Asian Christians in the U.S. mediate (24%) (Pew Research Centre, 2012b).
The same is true for Buddhists worldwide outside of the U.S. (Lewis, 2012). In Thailand, where 87% of the population is Buddhist, meditation is primarily taught in monasteries. While there are reportedly 33,000 monasteries in Thailand, the percentage of Thai who meditate has not been reported (Cooke, 2010). One study of 3,100 patients with cancer in Japan found that of the 44.6% who used some form of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM), 3.8% (n=53) used Qigong (which includes meditation as a component) (Hyodo et al., 2005). This finding is consistent with an Internet-based study of 30,665 adults in Japan of whom 3.9% practiced meditation (Shiba et al., 2015). In a random sample of 468 adults (31% Buddhist, 11% Tao, 7% Hindu, 17% Christian, 16% Islam, 19% Free Thinker) in Singapore, 76% used some form of CAM: 2.1% practiced Tai Ji or Qigong and 1.8% practiced Ayurveda or yoga (Lim et al., 2005). In another study of CAM practices in Singapore that involved a consecutive series of 65 cancer patients receiving radiation therapy at Singapore’s National Cancer Institute, only 3% of participants practiced meditation (Wong et al., 2010). Finally, in a study of CAM practices among 222 rheumatology patients in Seoul, Korea, 2% said they used religious or spiritual interventions (Kim & Seo, 2003). The frequency of the meditation reported in these studies of East Asians is far below the 8% of Americans who practice meditation pas part of CAM (Clarke et al., 2015).
Other Practices
Buddhist practices that involve “taking refuge” may involve the practice of rituals in a temple (institutionalised) or at home. Many Buddhists may have a small shrine in their home that often includes a picture or statue of the Buddha, to which they make offerings of clean water, flowers or incense. This shows gratitude and respect for the Buddha and his teachings. This practice, however, depends on the particular country, branch of Buddhism, family tradition, and education level. At least in theory, Buddhist practices that involve prayer and meditation either in the community temple or in the home are not transactional like in the West, i.e., they are not typically done in order to “get something.” However, these worship practices are thought to have consequences in terms of karma that will ultimately benefit the person.
Buddhist Clergy
Buddhist teachers can be monastics or laypersons. Buddhist monks are male and Buddhist nuns are female (originally called bhikkhu and bhikkhunis). Buddhist monks and nuns practice renunciation and celibacy. In some countries such as Japan and Korea, some Buddhist monks (called “priests”) have taken on administrative duties including performing worship services and temple rituals, and other tasks such as registering births, marriages, and deaths. They may also be employed in a secular job in the community, and be either celibate or married. Buddhist holy men and women lead an austere lifestyle, are often in their later years (final stages of renunciation), and are considered sages and teacher. They may live in a monastery or temple, although for a time may have also lived in the mountains or forests (at least during early Buddhism). The Dhammapada says this about the followers of the Buddha:
“Not for this is one a bhikkhu, merely that one begs of others; having taken up a gross dhamma, one is not thereby a bhikkhu. Setting aside both merit and wrong who lives here the higher life, courses in the world discriminately, he, indeed, is called “bhikku.” One does not become a sage by silence, if confused and ignorant. But a wise one, as if holding a set of scales, takes up the best, and shuns wrongs, he is a sage” (266-269).
Conclusions
The most widely known sacred Buddhist text is the Pali Canon (Tripitaka), although the Dhammapada may be the scripture that is most widely read by Buddhists. The Pali Canon is particularly revered by Theravada Buddhists, although this is also true to some extent for Mahayana and Vajrayana Buddhists (although they have their own sacred texts). The core Buddhist belief across all traditions is “taking refuge” in the Buddha, the Dhamma, and the Sangha. Soon after Enlightenment, the Buddha began to teach the Four Noble Truths, with the fourth Truth describing the Eightfold Path on how to achieve liberation from samsara (the endless cycle of death and rebirth) and reach nirvana (cessation of suffering). Buddhist cosmology involves several states of existence of the un-awakened person, progressing through six stages from lower to higher states. The Buddha’s early teachings involved the doctrine of “no self,” which helped to distinguish Buddhism from Hinduism. However, this doctrine raises questions about what entity is being reborn and and accumulating karma, as well as whether the Buddha continues to exist in some state after his death, issues which Buddhist scholars wrestle with. Concerning Buddhist practices, meditation is central to the last three steps of the Eightfold Path, although appears to be an infrequent practice among Asian Buddhists. More common are the practice of rituals that takes place either in Buddhist temples or at home, where a small shrine may be set up that includes a picture or statue of the Buddha, to which Buddhists make offerings as a show of gratitude and respect.