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The people known as “Protestants” historically were Catholics who “protested” against Roman Catholic Church’s teachings and practices, which they felt had strayed from the original teachings of Jesus Christ and his followers. Those included abuses by a series of corrupt Catholic Popes who had concubines and illegitimate children as part of an uninhibited and extravagant lifestyle, funded by the poor and destitute faithful masses. Objections were particularly strong over the selling of indulgences (payments made for the forgiveness of sins) to an uneducated populace frightened by the devastating effects of the bubonic plague in Europe at the time. Jesus had said “If thou wilt be perfect, go and sell that thou hast, and give to the poor, and thou shalt have treasure in heaven…” (Matthew 19:21). Jesus’ disciples had “sold their possessions and goods, and parted them to all men, as every man had” (Acts 2:45). Nowhere in the Bible did it say that money should be given to fund the immoral and degenerate lifestyle of the church hierarchy. There was also an increasing spirit of nationalism, where the monarchs of various countries sought to throw off the influence of the Catholic Church and the Pope, whom at that time had as much influence on politics and government as they did on theology.
The final split, which took place in stages, occurred between 1517 and 1534 A.D., was initiated by a professor at the University of Wittenberg and vicar in the Catholic Church, Martin Luther. In 1517 he published his 95 theses (i.e., complaints about the Catholic Church). As noted above, his complaints centred on the financial abuses by church leaders and on the Pope’s jurisdiction over Purgatory (i.e., his authority to declare that anyone could simply pay money to reduce their time there or receive immediate release). Luther argued that the treasury of the Church was not dependent on the actions of the Saints (as the Catholic Church claimed), but on the Gospel itself. He insisted that the Bible was the only basis for making any kind of authoritative declaration, not the whim of a supposedly infallible Pope.
The underlying reasons that drove Luther to ultimately criticise the Catholic Church and its doctrine were as follows (Bainton et al., 2016). First, it was Luther’s own struggle with sin. When reading the Bible, he became convinced that no amount of penance or good activity by humans was sufficient to atone for an inherently sinful nature that separated them from God. From this came Luther’s belief that only by faith in the death and resurrection of Jesus Christ (justification by faith, not by works) could people be saved from hell (as emphasised by the apostle Paul in the New Testament). Based on his reading of Scripture, Luther believed that no one was worthy of salvation. Good works could not save a person, but were the natural result that flowed from the immense gratitude resulting from being saved and loved by God despite their irredeemable sinfulness.
Luther opposed Catholic Church doctrine in a number of other ways as well. In The Babylonian Captivity of the Church, Luther argued that the number of Catholic Sacraments should be decreased from seven to two (baptism and the Eucharist only) based on what Jesus Christ had implemented according to Scripture. Luther even denied the sacred Catholic doctrine of transubstantiation with regard to the Eucharist and instead argued that it be replaced by the doctrine of consubstantiation – see below). This claim threatened the identity of the priest as the primary intercessor between people and God, thus challenging the hierarchical leadership of the Church and the Pope. Instead, Luther argued that according to Scripture, anyone with faith in Jesus Christ could approach God directly and didn’t need the priest to intercede for them (i.e., the “priesthood of all believers”). As a result of these criticisms, Luther was declared by the Church to be a heretic of the first degree and should have been ex-communicated and then executed (if it had not been for other circumstances – see Marty’s discussion in Banton et al., which go beyond the scope of this brief review).
Luther soon began conversations with the German Catholic emperor Charles V, encouraging him to take back political power from the Church by opposing some of its doctrines. In 1529, the emperor and prominent German laypersons “protested” (and later rescinded) a ruling of the Church called the Diet of Speyer “Protestant” was the name given to members of this moment who opposed the Catholic hierarchy and later to all those who rejected the rule of the Catholic Church during the Reformation.
In Switzerland, from the teachings of Huldrych Zwingli, a radical form of the Reformation emerged that argued for the separation of church and state and for making church membership voluntary, not compulsory (as it was in that day). Out of this movement came the Baptists, also called Anabaptists by critics because they denied the validity of infant baptism. The Baptists argued that baptism should occur only after individuals had reached the age of reason when they could decide for themselves whether or not to become a follower of Jesus Christ. It was from this tradition that the Mennonites, the Hutterites, the Amish, ad the Quakers would later emerge.
Among other reformers of this period was John Calvin (1509-1564), who also emphasised the authority of the Scripture and the universal nature of the church (not limited to Catholics but to all believing Christians), rejected the statues and images of holy persons (including the crucifix, except for a plain cross), and especially, argued for the doctrine of predestination, i.e., that only certain individuals (“the elect”) were destined for heaven (vs. human free will). In order to determine who exactly the elect were (which no one could know for certain), Calvin said there were three tests: profession of faith in Jesus Christ, a disciplined Christian life, and love for the sacraments (particularly the Eucharist). Having passed these tests, once could rest assured that they were a member of the elect. Calvin’s teachings would later lead to the Reformed traditions in Europe, from which the Presbyterian denomination would later emerge from the influence and leadership of John Knox of Scotland.
While the Lutheran and Reformed traditions were developing on the continent of Europe and northern British Isles, the Church of England under the leadership of King Henry VIII split off from the Catholic Church. This was not so much for religious reasons as for political ones. The King had a dispute with the Pope over his proposed marriage. Much of the Catholic doctrine, then, was retained by the King in this new movement that was to become the Anglican and Episcopal traditions. Several changes, however, were made. The King introduced the Bible written in common English into churches so that all had access to Scripture, removed all monasteries from England, and allowed clergy to marry. The doctrine of the new Church of England was described in the Book of Common Prayer (the Anglican counterpart to the Catechism of the Catholic Church).
Later, in the mid-18th century, Methodism branched off from the Anglican Church in England. The name “Methodism” was derived from the methodical study and devotion of its adherents. Led by the Oxford scholar John Wesley, this movement emphasised conversion to Christianity through evangelistic outreach and preaching by laypersons (“free churchmanship”). Methodist doctrine stressed salvation by faith, God’s grace, and the living of a moral life as a follower of Jesus Christ. The movement spread rapidly in the rural areas of England, and soon came to Switzerland and the American colonies (particularly New York).
The Restoration movement also emerged around this time in the American colonies. The “Great Awakening” was in part a reaction to the growing scientific rationalism in England and Europe and in part a reaction to the formal expression of religious practice in traditional churches that lacked emotion and zeal. “Revivals” began to occur in many Protestant groups, particularly among Congregationalists, Presbyterians, and Baptists. Leaders of this movement included Jonathan Edwards and George Whitfield, whose fiery preaching and evangelistic style were particularly successful in converting those on the American frontier and later the un-churched in rapidly growing industrial centres.
The 19th century would see the rise of many new religious groups in America, as well as the growth of conservative, fundamentalist, and evangelical forms of Protestantism through revivals led by preachers such as Charles Spurgeon, Charles Finney, Dwight Moody, and William Booth (founder of the Salvation Army). The new forms of Protestantism that developed focused on individual conversion, commitment, and emotional forms of worship. Less emphasis was placed on church organisation (characteristic of the mainline traditions). This period is also when a number of new non-traditional Christian Protestant groups emerged from the teachings of Joseph Smith (mormons), Mary Baker Eddy (Christian Scientists), and Charles Taze Russell (Jehovah’s Witnesses). The mid to late 19th century also saw the emergence of Seventy Day Adventists, a conservative Christian denomination that emphasised health and healing through a healthy diet and devout lifestyle. Under the leadership of Ellen White and her husband James White, the SDA church grew rapidly. Today, the Adventist Health System is the largest non-profit Protestant healthcare system in the U.S. (Byrd, 2016), second only to Catholic Healthcare.
Finally, the 20th century would see two World Wars between Christian countries and a Holocaust that greatly weakened Christendom in Europe, leading to rapid secularisation and the growth of Communism and atheism. However, in the United States, the early 20th century (1901-1906) saw the rise of Pentecostal and Holiness movements that branched off from the Methodist tradition. This movement grew rapidly in the inner cities and mong the rural poor in the South, and included charismatic practices such as “speaking in tongues” (glossolalia), “prophecy” (knowledge about a person that was divinely communicated), baptism in the Holy Spirit (“second baptism”), and belief in miraculous healings. The movement spread rapidly both in the U.S. and around the world (especially Latin America, the Caribbean, and Africa). By the 1960’s, it had begun to influence mainline Protestant traditions, finding its way into Episcopalian, Lutheran, and Presbyterian congregations, and even Roman Catholic groups. Middle-class and well-educated congregations were now starting to get involved. Pentecostals and Charismatics today make up more than one-quarter of the world’s Christians and the majority of Protestants (Pew Research Centre, 2011).
As a reaction to scientific rationalism (particularly Darwin’s theory of evolution) and the growth of liberal Protestant theology, Fundamentalism came into being in America with publication of The Fundamentals between 1910 and 1915, which maintained that the Bible was inerrant and should be taken literally (especially the Creation story). Leaders of this movement were William Jennings Bryan, and later, Jerry Falwell and Pat Robertson, who argued for the outlawing of abortion, the reintroduction of prayer in schools, the growth of the military, and support for Israel. Many of these views have also been adopted by Pentecostal and Charismatic groups.
More recently, Evangelicalism has arisen as a trans-denominational Protestant movement in the U.S. and around the world. Evangelical Protestantism was initiated by preachers such as Billy Graham, and has been supported by popular magazines such as Christianity Today and Charisma. Evangelicals focus on sharing the Christian message and conversion to a conservative form of Christianity based on the Bible (being “born again”). As mainline Protestant traditions (Methodist, Episcopal, Presbyterian) decline in numbers around the United States and the world, the number of Evangelicals is increasing. The U.S. now has more Evangelical Protestants than any other country in the world (Pew Research Centre, 2011, p 46).
Admittedly, the review above has been a superficial overview of a very complex history of how the many Protestant traditions have come into being during the past 500 years. Nevertheless, it provides some sense of origin for the beliefs and practices that are common to many Protestants today. Those beliefs and practices have the potential to influence mental health.